In this last chapter, I revisit the reasons from Chapter 1 on why to teach computing to everyone. I consider each of the levels of formal education: elementary school (roughly ages 1–13 in the U.S.), secondary/high school (ages 14–18), and undergraduate. The goals from Chapter 1 have different implications for each of those levels. I consider the issues in achieving those goals in terms of change at the different levels of education.
In this chapter, I focus on formal computing education. Informal computing education (e.g., online programs, after school programs, summer camps, museums, MOOCs, coding boot camps) is unlikely to reach everyone. Studies of informal computing education [34, 95, 143] have found many of them to be even more biased in favor of more wealthy and male students than current face-to-face computer science courses. We will reach a greater range of students and most likely achieve universal computing literacy through formal computing education pathways [130]. Informal computing education can play an important role in influencing identity and impacting perception of computing (consider expectancy-value theory here)[145], but are voluntary. ey are more likely to be adopted by wealthier families [53], so we are more likely to have society-wide effects (and particularly, to broaden participation in computing) through the formal pathways - elementary school, secondary school, and higher education.